How Schematics are Used in Electronics

For more Schematic information,

please refer to http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=interpret+schematic&aq=f

c++ programming tutorial 1

Online Business, What Would I Do?

Mr William write this to you in the Starbucks of Great Eastern mall, waiting for a dinner meeting which is 2 hours away, being here early because I didn’t want to get stuck in rush hour traffic.

What I’ve come to realize as I listen to the cheesy music being blasted out across the mall’s intercom is that if I started my online business career again, I may have done it slightly differently.

That’s easy to say with the benefit of hindsight, but nonetheless, it’s true.

I wouldn’t change many things, just do some of them slightly differently, here are just a few of them:

I Would Have Started With A Non-Personal .com Website

My very first blog that I ever created was a .blogspot.com blog and also it was a blog written in a personal nature, it wasn’t targeting any niche.

Although I’m not saying that personal and lifestyle bloggers can’t make money online, far from it in fact, as I know some pretty famous bloggers who are making quite a lot from their blogs, but for myself, I never should have started a personal blog.

Firstly, I’m not really all that interesting, so thinking that I could monetize a personal blog was definitely an oversight on my part.

For those who don’t know, my first blog was called at xanydude.blogspot.com (it’ll redirect you back here, so don’t bother visiting it) and it was called ‘A Banana vs. The World’.

Secondly, without a niche to target, getting organic traffic was always going to be hard.

If I could have done it again, I would have started a blog about blogging (like this one) and share my entire experience as I learned about blogging, Internet Marketing and web design.

Basically, I would have chosen a specific subject matter and stuck to it, no rambling, just useful content.

I would have also chosen a suitable .com domain name, on my own hosting, withWordpress installed as the CMS.

I Would Have Targeted The Whole World

Choosing onlinebusinessmalaysia.com to target the Malaysian audience has definitely worked out well in terms of Search Engine Optimization, but in terms of generating a large, interactive audience, targeting the world would have been better, albeit much harder.

Having such a specific domain name worked in my favour sometimes and also against me sometimes.

In my favour, it has now become Malaysia’s number 1 online business blog

Working against me, I may have alienated a more worldwide audience, especially from America, UK and Australia, since it seems my website is more targeted to a single country.

Furthermore, this set of audience would have potentially been more open to buying affiliate products or even my own products, had I created any.

I’m not saying that the Malaysian audience place aren’t potential clients, in fact a very large chunk of my income comes from Web Design services to Malaysian businesses, many of which have been to my blog to read about what I do.

If I could start again, maybe I would have bought a .com like WilliamLee.com and targeted a more general audience.

Like I said above, I would have written about blogging from my point of view and would have tried to build a readership base from there onwards. Due to the fact that there are so many people in the Western countries I mentioned above, the size of your newsletter base can grow much faster than if you target only one country.

Also, since they are more comfortable with purchasing products online, there would have been more potential for selling an affiliate product (such as from Clickbank) or develop my own to sell to them.

I Would Have Asked Around For Guest Posting Opportunities

I have yet to do this in Malaysia, but I would definitely have tried to guest post for other people in my niche.

I have read many examples of blogs, that with a combination of guest posting and a constant supply of good quality content, have made bloggers 5 figure salaries in as short as 1 year!

To a lot of my readers, 1 year may sound like an extremely long time, as the general perception is that Internet Marketing is some sort of magic bullet, that overnight will make you a millionaire.

Unfortunately that’s not the case – it’s constant effort, study, work and perseverance that makes you a millionaire, from online or offline businesses alike.

Guest posting is a great way to build a very targeted subscriber base in a very very short amount of time, as you leverage off the traffic of other more established websites.

Of course you would have to give them great content, useful to their audience. After all, why would they feature your writing if it weren’t top notch?

If I could do it again I would have prepared a few 750 – 1000 word articles, broken down into 3 to 5 sub headings and would have written the best possible articles I could think of.

Articles on becoming a better blogger, on pitfalls that I fell into when I blog and other articles that I think bloggers wouldn’t mind featuring on their blogs.

I would have then submit these guest posts to bloggers in my niche who had a medium following, hoping that one of them would feature my post on their blog.

I would have some sort of newsletter on my own blog so that when visitors come to my blog via my guest post, there would be something to entice them to join my newsletter (such as tips or a free e-book).

I would repeat this process at least twice a month, while adding really good content on my own blog, to keep these first time visitors coming back for more.

Now What?

Hindsight is great for spotting some of your mistakes and learning from them so that you don’t fall into the same traps as before, coming out better with each experience learned.

But something you can’t do is change the past, so there’s no point in dwelling on it.

So what am I going to be focusing on for this blog in the coming months? Well here are just a few of the things I’m going to try and cover/ do:

• More tips and information for first time bloggers and online business people in Malaysia to help them get off their feet
• Cover some of the Internet Marketing trends that are still being underutilized in Malaysia and how we should take advantage of them
• Lastly, I will be launching a series of Internet Marketing/ Online Business seminars with some associates of mine in the Internet Marketing industry. I’m going to cover (in depth) information on making money with blogging, making money with web design, online advertising and making money with e-commerce platforms.

If you’re interested in the seminars, sign up for my newsletter and I’ll update you as soon as I have more details on pricing, location and the subjects we are going to cover in our various seminars.

Referrer:

http://forum.lowyat.net/topic/1227979

http://www.amberlynchocolates.com/

Credit to William.

(Sustainable vs Renewable) energy

Lets look the "definitions" of these two phrases,
these are not an exact definitions,
different organizations and so called experts interpret and define them differently

Sustainable energy is energy obtained from a source which is not expected to deplete during the timeframe relevant to the human race.

Renewable energy is energy obtained from a source where the energy is replenished during a relatively short cycle.

Major hydro power is renewable but not sustainable.
usually major hydro power projects involved building a reservoir which would occupy a large area of land, this may change the natural environment so much that there could be long term effects such as change in rainfall etc, so whether the dam could replenish its energy for a long period of time (such as the end of humanity) is questionable. hence major hydro power is not considered renewable.
but then again this is debatable
because there are major hydro projects which have not gone bad... it all depends on how nature adopts to the change i guess...
well take the upper kotmale project.
it would change the environment but if its going change in a way that would effect rainfall which replenishes water to the reservoir for a long period of time is debatable.
so major hydro in general is not a sustainable source of energy but its renewable.

other types of renewable sources such as wind, small hydro, solar PV (solar cells) and solar thermal (solar powered hot water etc), geo thermal energy etc are all sustainable energy types

Referer : http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/cohen.html

Cheaper form of Green Power

Solar energy is a well established form of renewable energy. However with the present solar cells being rather thick, the cost of solar energy systems prove to be rather expensive for anyone to invest in, and use.

This is why researchers and experts inDurham University are busy developing thin layer solar cells.

These experts are trying to develop light absorbing materials that can be used for the production of thin layered, solar photovoltaic cells. These cells are used to convert the light energy from the sun into electricity.

This is basically a four year project where numerous experiments have been tried out on different materials to find out the material that is less expensive, but sustainable enough to use in the manufacture of solar panels. Today, the thicker and silicon based cells and compounds with the rare and expensive metal indium, are used to create solar panels.

So in a bid to find cheaper and more efficient materials for efficient energy production, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council(EPSRC) has funded this research. The research now consists of the development cheaper and more sustainable variants of thin-layer PV cells with the help of materials like cadmium telluride and indium diselenide.

In addition to this, the team is also working on means of manipulating the growth of these materials so that they form a continuous structure that helps in the conduction of energy that is trapped by solar panels before being used for electricity.

With this, it is expected to find an improved efficiency in the functioning of the thin layer PV cells.

The research team hopes that with the development of cheaper thin film PV cells, the cost of solar panels for the domestic market gets reduced while the usage of solar power increases. Today, only one hundredth of one percent of UK’s home energy is provided by solar energy.

With thin layer PV cells used for making solar panels that fit on roofs, homes that have surplus electricity being fed back to the National grid are powered with the necessary power. This leads to cheaper fuel bills and dependence on fossil fuels.

The main reason for this research is to find materials for generating solar energy so that solar energy is made more affordable to the common man. People will definitely buy a system that could be bought off the shelf, and provide even a fraction of their energy needs, if it was economical enough.

When considering the cost effectiveness of the system, you have to consider how many pounds have to be spent for getting a watt of power. So with cheap solar panels, you are sure to get a winning product that many people will want to buy.

And with the nano-scale resolution microscopes that have been funded for the study by the Science Research Investment Fund, it is possible for scientists to find out what limits the performance of solar cells.

Wind Energy

Windmills are used to harness the power of the wind to produce electricity. Usually windmills are erected using pre-made parts, on site. The basic fan type windmill consists of the tower, gearbox and fan.

Tower parts are usually made of galvanized steel using a roll of coiled sheet metal that is put on a de-spooling device to be fed to the production line.
The sheets are run under a straightener to remove twists and kinks and then cut to the right size and shape.
sometimes the pieces may be placed on a machine to roll and weld seams wherein its ends are passed under a crimping machine to be moved to the finishing station.

Holes are drilled in the metal parts of the finishing station at specific places, as per the windmill design.

These parts may be painted or coated before being fit into a windmill.
The gearbox of the windmill has various gears, rotors, wheels and axles found in it which are die cast and assembled by hand. These parts are placed in a weather resistant housing that is built to accommodate the gearbox parts and the attached wheel and tail assembly. The fan of the windmill is made of a metal rim that is attached with curved blades.

A hole is drilled in both ends of the rim which are connected with a small screw and clamp, to which the fan blades are attached.

The rim is then connected to a center axle, and attached with five pairs of evenly spaced spokes. The fan blades and tail of the windmill are cut from a sheet of metal and run through a machine to give them a curve.
They are then attached to the metal rim using small bolts and metal clamps so that they can be raised or lowered depending on the wind.

The site the windmill has to be placed has to be an area with a prevailing wind of at least 15 mph. the area has to be cleared of trees and other structures that block wind. Sometimes, a dirt mound or concrete base is build to raise the windmill so that it catches more wind.

When assembling the windmill, the main body parts are connected first, to be bolted on the ground and then raised vertically. Connecting rods are used to join other poles while clamps are bolted at joints for stability. Once the tower is raised, it is loosely bolted to the base wherein stay wires are strung from the ground to the tensioners and ground anchors.

When leveled, the bolts are tightened and its integrity tested.
Sometimes a ladder is built in the design for easy access and maintenance at the top. then the fan wheel, main shat and gearbox are attached where the gearbox is first clamped and bolted to the top of the tower.
Then the main shaft is inserted into the bottom of the gearbox wherein the fan and its axle are connected to the gearbox.

This is when the tail section is attached to the gearbox wherein the pump is hooked to the main shaft to make the windmill operational.

Solar Vehicle

Solar energy is one of the many renewable sources of energy that is used for fueling vehicles, running consumer products and for the efficient running of homes and business establishments. Solar power is harnessed with the help of solar cells and solar panels which are placed in the item that has to be powered.

The solar car is something that is envisioned to materialize in the future, with some countries already having solar cars racing across countries.
With this, it is proven that it is viable to indeed produce and manufacture solar power cars in bulk, in the near future so that everyone will soon own a solar power car.

Of course, once solar power cars are manufactured, it does not implicate that all other fuel sources for cars on highways will be removed. All that is done in solar power cars is the supplementation of traditional fuel with solar energy so that you save not only on your economy, but also save the environment in more ways than one every year.

The solar power cars that are used in races today run only on solar power, and thus look odd in appearance. This is because these cars are designed in such a way that they can collect maximum solar energy with which it is possible for the car to gain the required speed and desired efficiency.

The solar cells used in solar power cars are large, and usually cover the entire vehicle. However in case of commercial uses, solar cells are much smaller and designed so that the vehicle not only looks attractive, but is also efficient in its functioning. Solar cars can be used for short commutes in town as these cars can work only on solar energy.

The batteries found in the vehicle stores excess solar power so that this power can be used when solar power is not available on demand like on cloudy days and at nighttime. The engines found in these solar power cars are very much like the engines found in electric cars found today. In addition to this, the cars are lightweight, so that solar power can be used more efficiently.

At present, there are many types of solar power cars in the development stage today, which are also available for sale. However as these cars are in the developmental stage, the car is not available to the general public. With so many benefits found in solar power cars, its cost will not be much higher than the cost of the traditionally powered vehicles of today.

Another benefit of solar power cars is there is no hassle of stopping at gas stations for gas nor is there the need of getting worried of rising gasoline costs. With a solar power car, you save on the money that you would have otherwise have needed for buying fuel to run your car. In addition to this, with solar power cars you will be doing your bit in stopping global warming problems as there are no fuel emissions from solar power cars.

How Binary Code Works

Quick Binary Tutorial

People seem to freak out when they see binary. School math classes come flooding back and their mind freezes up. But there's no need for this at all. Don't think of binary as being difficult, just thing of it as different!

Binary terminology

Binary is a number system based on switches called bits. First, some terminology:

• Each bit is switch.
• Four bits is called a nibble.
• Eight bits is called a byte.

If the switch is on, the value of the switch is 1. If the switch off, the value of the switch is 0.

Why people find binary "different"

There are few things about binary numbers that make them different to the plain vanilla decimal (base10) numbers that surround us every day.

1. Binary only uses two of the digits that we are used to - 0 and 1
2. We need to learn to read them right to left (like decimal the smallest or least significant bit is on the right)

So, step 1 to binary success is to accept point 1 and just accept point 2!

Understanding binary

In these examples we will work with 8-bit binary - that is bytes. You can work with larger or smaller units but the byte is the most commonly used one.

OK, let's take a look at a byte of binary

01101101

OK, so the first thing to remember is to read the byte from right to left. Let's make things easier by creating a table:

Switch On = 1 Off = 0	0	1	1	0	1	1	0	1
Bit Position	8	7	6	5	4	3	2	1
Bit Value in decimal	128	64	32	16	8	4	2	1

Bit position is simply the position of the bit from the right - the bit furthest to the right is bit 1 and the bit on the left is number 8.

Decimal value of a bit is dependant on the position of the bit in the byte. The decimal value of the first bit is 1, the second 2 and so on. The eighth bit has a decimal value of 128. Converting a byte into decimal is simply adding up the decimal values of each on bit in the byte.

Highlight all the on bits and ignore the off bits:

Switch On = 1 Off = 0	0	1	1	0	1	1	0	1
Bit Position	8	7	6	5	4	3	2	1
Bit Value in decimal	128	64	32	16	8	4	2	1
01101101 =		64 +	32 +		8 +	4 +		1

Bit 8 = 0

Bit 7 = 64

Bit 6 = 32

Bit 5 = 0

Bit 4 = 8

Bit 3 = 4

Bit 2 = 0

Bit 1 = 1

http://www.mathsisfun.com/binary-decimal-hexadecimal-converter.html

Digital Logic - Signals and Gates

Introduction - Why Do You Want to Learn This Material?

In this lesson you're going to be introduced to Digital Logic. There are lots of reasons to learn digital logic. Here are some of those reasons.

• Digital logic is the foundation for digital computers. If you want to understand the innards of computers you need to know digital logic.
• Digital logic has relations to other kinds of logic including:
• Formal logic - as taught by many philosophy departments
• Fuzzy logic - a tool used to design control systems and many other systems.
• So, in learning digital logic you learn something that helps you elsewhere.
• For many students, learning digital logic is fun.

---

What Are You Going to Learn?

There are at least two general areas you need to become familiar with.

• First, there's background you need to know - the basics of digital logic - things like zeros and ones (0s and 1s) and how you can represent signals as sequences of zeroes and ones. Eventually you will want to know how large arrays of zeroes and ones can be used in computer files to store information in pictures, documents, sounds and even movies and you'll want to learn about how information can be transmitted, between computers and digital signal sources.
• You will also need to know things about digital circuits - gates, flip-flops and memory elements and others - so that you can eventually design circuits to manipulate digital signals.

Here is a short list of the topics you will learn.

• Learn what logic signals look like
• Model logic signals
• Learn Boolean algebra for logic analysis
• Learn about gates that process logic signals
• Learn how to design some smaller logic circuits
• Learn about flip-flops and memory elements that store logic signals

Reference: http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonshtml/Logic/Logic1.html

Flip-Flops

There are some circuits that are not quite as straight forward as the gate circuits we have discussed in earlier lessons. However, you still need to learn about circuits that can store and remember information. They're the kind of circuits that are used in computers to store program information - RAM memory.

In this lesson we'll look at the background for those kinds of memory circuits. Our goal is the following.

Given a flip-flop circuit,

Determine how the circuit will behave for a sequence of inputs.
Be able to use a flip-flop to store a single bit.

Reference: http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonshtml/Logic/Logic4.html

:

Why Do You Need To Know About Karnaugh Maps?

Karnaugh Maps are used for many small design problems. It's true that many larger designs are done using computer implementations of different algorithms. However designs with a small number of variables occur frequently in interface problems and that makes learning Karnaugh Maps worthwhile. In addition, if you study Karnaugh Maps you will gain a great deal of insight into digital logic circuits.

In this section we'll examine some Karnaugh Maps for three and four variables. As we use them be particularly tuned in to how they are really being used to simplify Boolean functions.

The goals for this lesson include the following.

Given a Boolean function described by a truth table or logic function,
Draw the Karnaugh Mapfor the function.
Use the information from a Karnaugh Map to determine the smallest sum-of-products function.

introduce to Resistor

Resistors determine the flow of current in an electrical circuit. Where there is high resistance in a circuit the flow of current is small, where the resistance is low the flow of current is large. Resistance, voltage and current are connected in an electrical circuit by Ohm’s Law.

RESISTORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
Resistors can be connected together in two ways to give different overall values. This is especially useful if you do not have a resistor of the correct value and need to make it up from other available ones.
1. Resistors in SERIES - When resistors are connected in series, their values are added together:
For example: 1K+1K+3K9=5K9 (total value)
2. Resistors in PARALLEL -When resistors are connected in parallel, their total resistance is given as:
For example: 1/Rtotal = 1/1K + 1/1K = 0.5K or 500 ohms

Introduce to Capacitor

Capacitor non electrolytic

Capacitor electrolytic

In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read How Batteries Work, then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery, chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons on the other terminal. A capacitor is much simpler than a battery, as it can't produce new electrons -- it only stores them.

In this article, we'll learn exactly what a capacitor is, what it does and how it's used in electronics. We'll also look at the history of the capacitor and how several people helped shape its progress.

Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal platesseparated by a non-conducting substance, or dielectric. You can easily make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It won't be a particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it will work.

Introduce to Multimeter

Bahagian-bahagian utama multimeter

Skala bacaan

Menunjukkan skala bacaan yang akan diukur iaitu pengukuran voltan arus terus, voltan arus ulang alik, arus elektrik dan nilai rintangan.

Julat pemilih

Julat pemilih adalah satu tombol di mana tempat untuk memilih unit sukatan yang dikehendaki.

Terminal keluaran

Pada sesebuah multimeter mempunyai 2 keluaran iaitu terminal positif dan negatif di mana ianya akan di sambungkan pada litar atau kaki komponen yang akan disukat. Ia adalah sebagai punca untuk menyukat sesuatu kuantiti atau nilai.

Pelaras 0 ohm

Merupakan satu tombol yang membolehkan pelarasan dibuat untuk mendapatkan bacaan yang tepat dan jarum penunjuk akan berada tepat pada kedudukan 0 sebelum sesuatu pengukuran dilakukan. Kedudukan 0 ini bermaksud 0 pada bahagian sebelah kanan skala bacaan. Pelarasan 0 ohm ini mesti dilakukan setiap kali julat pemilih menukar unit sukatan ohm pada julat pemilih.

Pelarasan sifar

Ianya untuk memastikan kedudukan berada betul-betul pada kedudukan 0 iaitu pada keadaan asal untuk mendapatkan bacaan yang tepat. Kedudukan 0 ini bermaksud 0 pada bahagian sebelah kiri skala bacaan.

Cara mengukur pada multimeter

Meter pelbagai mempunyai pelbagai fungsi yang tersendiri untuk mengukur dan membuat pengujian terhadap komponen atau peralatan. Antaranya adalah:-

Menyukat rintangan (Ω)

Garisan atas sekali digunakan untuk menyukat nilai rintangan dalam ohm. Untuk mendapatkan bacaan yang tepat dan pelarasan pada julat pemilih yang sesuai adalah penting. Julat ini ditandakan dengan julat 0 hingga infiniti (∞). Setiap kali pengukuran hendak dilakukan, pelarasan sifar perlu dilakukan iaitu untuk memastikan kedudukan jarum penunjuk berada betul-betul pada kedudukan kosong atau sifar. Setkan julat pemilih pada kedudukan julat yang paling tinggi dan tentukan nilainya. Jika bacaan yang ditunjukkan besar, setkan juga julat pemilih pada julat yang sesuai pada nilai yang lebih besar. Pelarasan sifar perlu dilakukan sekali lagi bagi mendapatkan bacaan yang tepat. Bacaan yang diambil adalah dari kanan ke kiri skala bacaan.

Menyukat voltan arus terus

Garisan skala yang kedua digunakan untuk menyukat voltan DC iaitu yang ditandakan dengan DCV. Skala ini ditandakan dengan beberapa angka iaitu 0.1, 0.25, 2.5, 10, 50, 250 dan 1000.Julat ini diplotkan bagi membuat pengukuran untuk julat yang disetkan pada unit kawalan. Setkan julat pemilih pada kedudukan DCV iaitu pada julat yang tinggi untuk mengelakkan bacaan yang diperolehi melebihi skala yang telah ditetapkan. Sekiranya bacaan yang diperolehi kecil dan tidak dapat dibaca dengan tepat, laraskan julat pemilih kepada julat yang kecil sedikit. Bacaan yang diambil adalah dari kiri kanan pada skala bacaan.

Menyukat voltan arus ulang alik

Garisan skala yang ketiga digunakan untuk menyukat voltan AC yang ditandakan dengan ACV. Seperti juga skala DCV. Skala ini juga ditandakan dengan angka yang serupa untuk membuat pengukuran dan ia juga mempunyai beberapa julat iaitu 10, 50, 250 dan 1000. Setkan julat pemilih pada keadaan kedudukan ACV dan setkan julat ke nilai yang paling tinggi. Ini adalah untuk memastikan multimeter tidak rosak akibat voltan lampau. Jika bacaan yang diperolehi kecil dan tidak dapat dibaca, laraskan julat pemilih pada julat yang sesuai. Bacaan yang diambil adalah dari kiri ke kanan skala bacaan.

Menyukat arus terus

Garisan skala yang kedua digunakan untuk menyukat arus terus (DcmA). Bacaan yang diambil adalah sama dengan skala voltan arus terus (DCV) dan menggunakan 10, 50 dan 250. Semasa membuat pengukuran arus litar perlu dipisahkan dari punca bekalan bagi membolehkan bacaan diperoleh adalah tepat. Setkan julat pemilih pada kedudukan DcmA iaitu pada nilai yang paling tinggi. Putuskan litar dari bekalan dan ambil bacaan yang telah ditunjukkan pada skala penunjuk. Jika yang diperolehi kecil, laraskan julat pemilih pada julat yang sesuai untuk mendapatkan bacaan yang tepat. Bacaan yang diambil adalah dari kiri ke kanan skala bacaan.

Soldering Techniques

TEKNIK MEMETRI (Soldering Techniques)

Untuk melakukan satu-satu pemetri yang baik langkah-langkah berikut hendaklah diikuti dengan betul.

i. Mula-mula sediakan soldering, bersihkan mata dan panaskan. Solder yang panas diletakkan pada soldering stand

ii. Bersihkan permukaan PCB dengan kertas pasir atau pada mana-mana kaki komponen yang kotor.

iii. Uji soldering iron dengan letakkan sedikit lead pada hujung mata, sekiranya lead cair maka soldering itu telah siap sedia digunakan.

iv. Kemaskan semua komponen pada PCB atau lakukan proses tinning pada mana-mana wayar yang digunakan.

a. Memetri kaki komponen

ü Kemaskan komponen pada PCB dengan menggunakan long nose plier sebelum dipetrikan

ü Panaskan PCB dan kaki komponen serentak serta diletakkan lead sehingga cair. Pada masa ini tarik lead keatas dengan solder ke arah atas secara serentak.

ü Pastikan solder yang dibuat tidak terlalu banyak atau sedikit. Pastikan solder yang dibuat memenuhi permukaan kaki komponen.

b. Memetri sambungan wayar.

ü Tentukan wayar yang hendak dicantumkan dilakukan proses tinning. Pastikan jarak wayar adalah sepanjang 5mm. Seterusnya letakkan kedua-dua hujung wayar dan lakukan pemetri dengan solder.

ü Solder yang baik , ianya adalah kuat, nipis, permukaan yang berkilat.

Perhatian:

TINNING PROSES

Tinning adalah satu proses menyalut mata soldering dengan solder lead untuk bersihkan mata solder. Ia juga merupakan satu proses untuk memudahkan pemetri dilakukan terutama pada wayar dan kaki komponen. Dimana menyalutkan sedikit lead pada wayar sebelum solder pada PCB.